Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World

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The ignorant view I have in my head, having never really studied Chinggis, is that he was a great warrior who waded through blood to create a massive empire. But he was a great lawgiver as well, was he? Fiaschetti, Francesca (2014). "Tradition, Innovation and the construction of Qubilai's diplomacy" (PDF). Ming Qing Yanjiu. 18 (1): 82. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 June 2022 . Retrieved 10 January 2020. Cleaves, Francis Woodman (1955). "The Historicity of The Baljuna Covenant". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 18 (3): 357–421. doi: 10.2307/2718438. JSTOR 2718438. It is an outstanding book, not only covering everything you could possibly want to know about the Mongols, but new analysis. This is a book I think every scholar of the Mongol Empire will be looking at for a very long time. Chinggis Khan was born in 1162 as Temüjin. His mother was Hoelun. She was kidnapped by his father Yesugei, but she became his primary wife. As well as Temüjin they had a few other children and Temüjin would eventually become Chinggis Khan. Chinggis Khan is a title that means ‘fearless, firm, resolute ruler’. An older view that’s hung around for a while is that it means ‘oceanic ruler’. There’s still some debate on exactly what it means, but it means someone you really don’t want to mess with.

Sverdrup, Carl (2017). The Mongol Conquests: The Military Campaigns of Genghis Khan and Sübe'etei. Solihull: Helion & Company. ISBN 978-1-913336-05-9. Wright, David Curtis (2017) [2016]. "Genghis Khan". Oxford Bibliographies: Military History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/OBO/9780199791279-0154. Genghis Khan never allowed his image to be depicted in any medium; as a result, any painting, sculpture, or engravings are interpretations of the writings of historians, most writing long after his death. [180] The two earliest statements come from the Persian chronicler Juzjani, who relied on Khorasani eyewitnesses, and the contemporary Song diplomat Zhao Hong—both record that he was tall and strong with a powerful stature. Juzjani additionally remarks on the khan's "cat's eyes", mirroring a similar statement Dei Sechen, Genghis' father-in-law, is recorded saying on meeting him as a nine-year old. [181] A much later description is found in the Jami al-tawarikh: this states that Genghis Khan and his Borjigin ancestors had blue-green eyes and red hair or a ruddy complexion, depending on the translation. As the first two characteristics might indicate Genghis had non-Mongolic ancestry, the description is controversial. [182]

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Atwood, Christopher P. (2004a). "Validation by Holiness or Sovereignty: Religious Toleration as Political Theology in the Mongol World Empire of the Thirteenth Century" (PDF). The International History Review. 26 (2): 237–256. doi: 10.1080/07075332.2004.9641030. JSTOR 40109471. S2CID 159826445. While Iggulden is not shy to admit that he took some liberties with the historical record, Brad Hooper, writing inBooklistfound thatEmperor: The Gates of Rome“casts authentically detailed light on the early years of the great Roman general and statesman Julius Caesar.” CONQUEROR SERIES Eventually we get a partition into four parts. There’s the Middle East; there’s Russia, Ukraine and a large chunk of Kazakhstan and Siberia; there’s East Asia and then Central Asia. All these end at different times, just fading away. You can safely say that a little bit after 1500, by about 1525/1526 the Mongol Empire is done. By 1368 the Mongols are out of China. But there was still a Mongol state in Mongolia, fully intent on re-establishing the Empire. Brose 2014, § "Building the Mongol Confederation"; Fitzhugh, Rossabi & Honeychurch 2009, p.103; Ratchnevsky 1991, pp.86–88; McLynn 2015, pp.90–91. May, Timothy (2012). The Mongol Conquests in World History. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-971-2.

To write as authentic descriptions as possible, Iggulden spent his school breaks researching in Rome and Pompeii trying to immerse himself in the history he was writing about. To that end, he donned battle Armor and sailed on the open seas in much the same way his characters did. After completing the fourth book in the emperor series, Iggulden began research for his next series of books, the Conqueror series, based on the life of Mongol warlords Genghis, Ogedai, and Kublai Khan. His first book, Wolves of the Plains, was available from 2 January 2007. Then followed his second book, Lord of the Bows, on 2 January 2008. Bones of the Hills, the third book in the series, was released on 1 September 2008. During the following years, Temüjin and Toghrul campaigned separately and together against the Merkits, the Naimans, and the Tatars. In around 1201, a collection of dissatisfied tribes including the Onggirat, the Tayichiud, and the Tatars, swore to break the domination of the Borjigin-Kereit alliance, electing Jamukha as gurkhan and their leader. After some initial successes, this loose confederation was routed at Yedi Qunan, and Jamukha was forced to beg for Toghrul's clemency. [57] Desiring complete supremacy in eastern Mongolia, Temüjin defeated first the Tayichiud and then, in 1202, the Tatars; after both campaigns, he executed the clan leaders and took the remaining warriors into his service. These included Sorkan-Shira, who had come to his aid previously, and a young warrior named Jebe, who, by killing Temüjin's horse and refusing to hide that fact, had displayed military skill and personal courage. [58] There have been many translations, not only in English, but other languages. In English, there are three primary ones. The first one was by Francis Cleaves, a scholar at Harvard. He made the odd choice of translating it into King James English because he felt that captured its almost scriptural character. However, that also makes it difficult to read for many people.The year of Temüjin's birth is disputed, as historians favour different dates: 1155, 1162 or 1167. Some traditions place his birth in the Year of the Pig, which was either 1155 or 1167. [18] While a dating to 1155 is supported by the writings of both Rashid al-Din and the Chinese diplomat Zhao Hong, other major sources such as the Yuan Shi and the Shengwu favour the year 1162. [19] [b] The 1167 dating, favoured by Paul Pelliot, is derived from a minor source—a text of the Yuan artist Yang Weizhen—but is far more compatible with the events of Genghis Khan's life. For example, an 1155 placement implies that he did not have children until after the age of thirty and continued actively campaigning into his seventh decade. [20] Pelliot was nevertheless uncertain of the accuracy of his theory, which remains controversial; the historian Paul Ratchnevsky notes that Temüjin himself may not have known the truth. [21] The location of Temüjin's birth is similarly debated: the Secret History records his birthplace as Delüün Boldog on the Onon River, but this has been placed at either Dadal in Khentii Province or in southern Agin-Buryat Okrug, Russia. [22] McLynn, Frank (2015). Genghis Khan: His Conquests, His Empire, His Legacy. Hachette Books. ISBN 978-0-306-82395-4. Serving as regent after Genghis' death, Tolui established a precedent for the customary traditions after khan's death. These included: the halting of all offensive military actions involving Mongol troops, the establishment of a lengthy mourning period, which the regent would oversee, and the holding of a kurultai which would nominate successors and select them. [177] For Tolui, this presented an opportunity. He was still a viable candidate for succession and had the support of the family of Jochi. Any general kurultai, attended by the commanders Genghis had promoted and honoured, would however observe their former ruler's desires without question and appoint Ogedei as ruler. It has been suggested that Tolui's reluctance to hold the kurultai was driven by the knowledge of the threat it posed to his ambitions. [178] In the end, Tolui had to be convinced by Yelu Chucai to hold the kurultai; in 1229, it crowned Ogedei as khan, with Tolui in attendance. [179] Legacy Medieval depictions and assessment Genghis Khan and Great Khans of the Yuan dynasty, late 13th and early 14th-century Yuan paintings Connor Igguldenwas born on 24 February 1971 to an English father (who was anRAF pilotduring theSecond World War) and an Irish mother (whose grandfather was aseanchaí). He went to Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Primary inRuislip, Middlesex, then attendedSt Martins School in Northwood, before moving on toMerchant Taylors’ School.

With the tribes fully united, Genghis set out on a campaign of conquest. Having vassalised the Western Xia state by 1211, he then invaded the Jin dynasty in northern China, forcing the Jin emperor Xuanzong to abandon the northern half of his realm in 1214. In 1218, Qara Khitai, a Central Asian khanate, was annexed by Mongol forces, allowing Genghis to lead an invasion of the neighbouring Khwarazmian Empire in the following year. The invading Mongols toppled the Khwarazmian state and devastated the regions of Transoxiana and Khorasan, while another expedition penetrated as far as Georgia and Kievan Rus'. In 1227, Genghis died while besieging the rebellious Western Xia; his third son and heir Ögedei succeeded him to the throne two years later. There’s also a third translation I want to mention by Urgunge Onan, who was a Mongolian who came over to the West in the mid-twentieth century. He ended up at the University of Leeds and then, eventually, at Cambridge. His translation is also very good and very accessible, although a little bit skimpier on the notes. It’s a bit less expensive that Rachewiltz’s. There are some differences of interpretation between the translations but, if you read any of them, you’ll get the same basic understanding.

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It disappeared for a while. We know of it today because during the Ming dynasty it was discovered and it was used to train interpreters and translators in Mongolian. One of the initial texts we had of it was actually in Chinese, but with the Chinese phonemes, or the Chinese characters being used for phonemes, to get the syllables to recreate the work into Mongolian. May, Timothy (2018). The Mongol Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748642373. JSTOR 10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68.11. A bust of Genghis Khan in the presidential palace in Ulaanbaatar, and a statue of him at his mausoleum Weighed up, I have to say I've found this a bit of a scarifying read. We know that Genghis Khan was the last, if the most spectacular, assertion of steppe nomads over settled, and that ever since his age the nomads have been on the losing side. But this book brings it home to you. We know the 20th century was more horrific than the 13th... and then there are the centuries in between. The best of this book, I feel, was the sense of tragic absurdity we reached at about the centre of the steppe – like a Camus novel, even though I've forgotten them. He does meet with random acts of kindness from strangers and with great characters or eccentrics, that cheer you up on the journey. The adventure sounds romantic, and at times it is. But it's a bleak prospect he travels through.

Temüjin retreated southeast to Baljuna, an unidentified lake or river, where he waited for his scattered forces to regroup: Bo'orchu had lost his horse and was forced to flee on foot, while Temüjin's badly wounded son Ögedei had been transported and tended to by Borokhula, a leading warrior. He called in every possible ally and swore a famous oath of loyalty, later known as the Baljuna Covenant, to his faithful followers, which would later grant them exclusivity and prestige. [62] The oath-takers of Baljuna were a very heterogenous group—men from nine different tribes, who included Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists united only by loyalty to Temüjin and to each other; this group became a model for the later empire, being termed a "proto-government of a proto-nation" by historian John Man. [63] The Baljuna Covenant was omitted from the Secret History—as the group was predominantly non-Mongol, the author presumably wished to downplay the role of other tribes. [64]He eventually left teaching to write his first novel,The Gates of Rome. He is married to Ella, who is from theAmalfi Coastin Southern Italy and whose family are renowned craftpastaandraviolispecialist producers in the region.They have four children and live inHertfordshire, England,nearChorleywood Golf Club. Now sole ruler in the steppe, Temüjin held a kurultai at the source of the Onon River in 1206. [69] Here, he formally adopted the title Genghis Khan, the etymology and meaning of which has been much debated. Some commentators hold that the title had no meaning, simply representing Temüjin's eschewment of the traditional "gurkhan" title, which had been accorded to Jamukha and was thus of lesser worth. [70] Another theory suggests that the word "Genghis" bears connotations of strength, firmness, hardness, or righteousness. [71] A third hypothesis proposes that the title is related to the Turkic "tängiz", meaning " sea" or " ocean"; the title "Genghis Khan" would mean "master of the ocean", and as the ocean was believed to surround the earth, the title ultimately implied "Universal Ruler". [72] Enkhbold, Enerelt (2019). "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships". Central Asian Survey. Taylor and Francis. 38 (4): 531–547. doi: 10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799. S2CID 203044817.